Focus on Arts and Ecology

27 June, 2024 

The amount of fish harvested from aquaculture has overtaken wild-capture fisheries for the first time, according to a huge biannual report from the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).

Manuel Barange, director of the FAO’s Fisheries and Aquaculture Division, said this was “a great result because it means that we can continue to increase the production of aquatic foods without increasing the impact on the marine environment, as less than 40% of aquaculture is produced in marine waters”.

The FAO’s State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (Sofia) report notes that aquaculture produced 51% of the 185 million tonnes of aquatic animals harvested in 2022 and 97% of 38 million tonnes of algae.

China is a huge part of this, producing 40% of the overall 223 million tonnes of seafood.

The country dominates aquaculture and continues to be the largest player in capture fisheries, accounting for 14.3% of the global harvest of 92 million tonnes in 2022. But the FAO notes that China is among those reducing the size of its fishing fleet, amid a push for greater sustainability.

China’s marine catches declined by around 18% between 2015 and 2022. “A continuation of a catch-reduction policy beyond the 13th and 14th five-year plans (2016–2020 and 2021–2025) is expected to result in further decreases in coming years, although 2022 marine capture catches were broadly similar to those in 2021,” states the Sofia report.

(Sources: Dialogue Earth)

27 June, 2024 

Chinese construction companies have been banned from moving coral to make space for construction projects.

The Ministry of Natural Resources issued a notice this month strengthening a requirement for coral reef ecosystems to be protected and restored in situ, and banning the practice of transplanting them elsewhere for restoration. China has lost 80% of its coral reefs since the 1950s, but rigorous monitoring since 2002 has gradually fostered a system of conservation and restoration.

Previously, coral reefs affected by development projects were sometimes relocated. In July last year, for example, coral in waters around the port expansion project for an international container hub at Yangpu, Hainan province, were transplanted to the Linqiangshi Island coral reef nature reserve in Danzhou, according to media reports.

The new approach ends such practices by requiring that construction works avoid areas of coral wherever possible. For projects of national significance where particular islets or areas of sea cannot be bypassed, developers have to demonstrate the need to encroach on reefs. This, the ministry said, should include “assessing the damage to and impact on resources and the ecology and drawing up specific, viable objectives and measures for conservation and restoration, so as to minimise the destruction of ecosystems in the course of construction”.

Conservation and restoration work in such cases will have to be carried out promptly and in situ, during construction, and then managed and monitored for at least three years to ensure the ecosystem has fundamentally recovered.

(Sources: Dialogue Earth)

The islanders of Bangka Belitung, off Sumatra, have long hunted squid for sustenance and trade, but some fear this is being imperilled by mining. 

By Nopri Ismi, June 4, 2024

On the night of 1 April, strong winds brought drizzle, lightning and metre-high waves to the seas around the Bangka Belitung islands in western Indonesia. Ismu Bai decided to return from his squid-fishing trip early.

“Thankfully I was able to get two kilograms [of squid]. The important thing is to get home safely to your family,” says Ismu, who has for decades fished on the east coast of Bangka Island, one of two in the province of Bangka Belitung Islands. He says the waters around it attract fishers from as far away as Java, 400km to the south.

“During spawning season, there are many mother squid looking after their young. They are known to be fierce and hungry, so they are easy to bait,” Ismu notes. Local fishers like himself are fortunate that fishing conditions are still good and they do not have to go out too far, he adds.

But those around the Bangka Belitung islands are increasingly anxious about whether the sea will always have such favourable conditions. They particularly fear the impact of tin mining.

Mining’s surge troubles squid fishers

Tin has been mined in Indonesia for hundreds of years, but the activity has grown significantly this century. Mining on land and at sea took off after reforms in 1998 liberalised regulation, with illegal mining increasing in parallel with legal activity.

Marine tin mining is carried out by dredging or sucking sand from the seabed, which is then washed to separate out the tin. The material is traditionally associated with cans, but it is also used in high-tech products to solder electronics.

Small-scale, community-led operations use wooden pontoons that float on plastic barrels to mine tin. Commercial miners use dredgers and specialist suction vessels that can pull up more than 3.5 million cubic metres of material every month.

Currently, all tin mining methods dispose of waste byproducts directly into the sea, says Ahmad Subhan Hafidz, executive director of the Indonesian environmental NGO Walhi Bangka Belitung.

The tin and heavy metals of mining waste can spread long distances, settling on reefs and other habitats.

“Since various tin-mining technologies began operating in coastal and marine areas, there has been damage to the coastal and marine ecology and the threat of loss of the wisdom [and] values of the people of the Bangka Belitung islands,” Hafidz tells Dialogue Earth.

Coral counts the cost

According to Walhi Bangka Belitung, in 2015 there were nearly 82,300 hectares of coral reef around the Bangka Belitung islands. Its 2017 analysis of satellite imagery detected over 12,500 hectares of live coral and nearly 5,300 hectares of dead coral. The other 64,500 hectares of coral had disappeared.

Researchers say tin mining activity has contributed to this rapid coral loss, as well as that of sargassum meadows. Both are vital squid habitats. “Simply put, without coral reefs, squid will not be able to live and reproduce. Almost all squid life cycles [mating, spawning and juvenile life] are very dependent on coral reef ecosystems,” says M Rizza Muftiadi, a coral researcher from Bangka Belitung University.

“While tin mining activities on land and sea around Bangka Island are still ongoing, coral reefs and squid will continue to be threatened,” he adds. “This will be exacerbated by climate change and other phenomena.”

The impacts of this tin mining has also been felt on land. The people of Bangka Belitung feel it has forced them to stop traditional crop growing, because some of the land has been converted into tin mines.

Dialogue Earth spoke to Sukardi, a community leader of the Mapur tribe, living on the northern tip of Bangka Island in the hamlet of Tuing: “Most of the residents in Tuing now only go out to sea”, instead of planting vegetables.

In the hamlet of Kedimpal on Bangka Island’s eastern coast, income from agriculture used to be supplemented by harvesting the plentiful shellfish on the shore. Now, the hamlet is dominated by dry, dead sea pine trees – an indication of the area’s soil health. Locals blame tin mining for the depleted state of the local ecosystem.

Elsa is a shellfish picker in Batu Beriga, a village on the eastern tip of Bangka Island. She says “on land there are no longer any gardens”, while the shore’s shellfish population has been significantly depleted. Ironically, she now depends on her child’s tin mining income.

Permits trigger protests

A 2018 inventory found just over 12,600 mining pits spread across 15.58 million hectares in all regions of the Bangka Belitung islands. The province’s PT Timah mining company is a major player in Indonesia’s tin sector.

The anxiety of fishers in Batu Beriga has been fuelled by the approval in 2023 of the company’s marine tin plan, which involves mining in their previously untouched area. This proposal was rejected by the community in 2019, putting a temporary pause on mining.

Between 2018 and 2023, tin mining activities in the area have caused 33 instances of community conflict, including demonstrations against the government and mining. On Earth Day in April, Batu Beriga villagers and other community groups held a demonstration at provincial government offices. They demanded the revocation of mining permits for Batu Beriga and other areas.

In response, the acting governor of the province of Bangka Belitung Islands, Safrizal ZA, promised to request the company not mine near the village without the community’s consent.

“We cannot directly revoke the mining business permit, because I was not the one who issued it,” he conceded in a statement. “But I can write to the ministry that issues mining business permits so that the one in [Batu] Beriga will be reviewed. We will guard it together.”

Mining company stresses restoration efforts

Anggi Siahaan, head of corporate communications at PT Timah, says the company has carried out significant remediation works both on land and at sea.

Between 2016 and 2023, this included sinking over 3,100 fish shelters, transplanting 51 hectares of coral, planting nearly nine hectares of mangroves and placing 96 hectares of artificial reef, he says. The company has also conducted restocking by releasing about 40,400 squid and 2,400 crabs.

“The implementation of [remediation] must be seen as an integrated step with mining activities,” says Anggi. “The implementation of good and correct mining practices must be carried out effectively and can provide optimal results with minimal environmental impact.”

But some fishers and scientists question the effectiveness of remediation efforts, and say there is little point restocking or trying to rebuild squid, fish and coral populations if they continue to be impacted by mining waste.

When presented with their findings, Anggi says the company carried out environmental management, complied with all government regulations, and had never been warned about or fined for environmental non-compliance. The world needs tin, and PT Timah is committed to responsible and sustainable mining, he says.

Struggling for squid

As well as mining, squid fishers also have to contend with unpredictable weather and other fishers coming to the island’s waters. Large ships set up further offshore, which some blame for reducing coastal squid numbers.

Near Batu Beriga, where the waters are one of few areas untouched by tin mining, locals say squid catches have declined in the past decade.

Selling two kilograms of squid – the amount Ismu hauled that night in April – may not cover the costs incurred to catch it. “If sold, two kilograms of squid can only get 160,000 rupiah [around USD 10],” says Reno, a fisher and member of the Tourism Awareness Group (Pokdarwis) for Batu Beriga. “We often lose money and are forced to go into debt again to go to sea the next day.”

Reno says most local fishers have re-mortgaged their houses for the money to go to sea, and that “many fishermen here are already in tens of millions of rupiah of debt with fish middlemen [village-level buyers]”.

Giving thanks to the sea

For fishers on Bangka Belitung, there are usually two peak squid seasons: the first from June to August, and the second from October to January. In June, villagers usher in the season with the taber laot ritual, in which they give thanks for the past year’s marine harvest and offer a prayer for its increased abundance. People are prohibited from going to sea during this three-day period.

The ritual is carried out by various Malay tribes in Bangka Belitung. In the local dialect, taber refers to efforts to heal, purify or restore, and laot means sea. Its date is closely associated with the life cycle of marine animals, especially squid, because they are an important catch. It is hoped the ritual locking of the sea to fishers gives the sea a rest and replenishment.

Ismu, from Batu Beriga, says there must be an appreciation for the sea, which has supported his community for centuries: “There are strong reasons that make us continue to look after it.”

More fishing boats are coming to northern waters as sea ice retreats, bringing pollution with them. 

By Anna Napolitano, June 17, 2024

Viola “Vi” Waghiyi says her people, the Yupik, have long lived in harmony with the lands and waters around their village on Sivuqaq.

On this piece of the United States between Alaska and Russia’s far east, known as St Lawrence Island in English, “the elders called the Bering Sea our farm”, Waghiyi explains.

But the farm has been less productive recently as sea ice diminishes and the Arctic becomes seasonally navigable.

Walruses and seals, which rely on the ice, are critical to the traditional diet of Arctic Indigenous peoples. Waghiyi’s village of Savoonga sometimes bills itself as the Walrus Capital of the World.

“If there is no ice, our freezers are empty,” she says.

Sea ice in the Arctic waxes and wanes through the year, and is normally at its lowest extent in September, at the end of the summer. Since the first satellite recordings began in 1978, September cover has shrunk at a rate of 12.2% per decade. Amid record-breaking ocean temperatures, last year’s September extent of 4.37 million square kilometres was the fifth lowest on record.

As the sea becomes easier to navigate, more ships are coming to the area, and with them pollution, notably plastic.

“We believe krill have to go deeper into the ocean due to the surface warming, and the fish, who depend on krill, are mistaking microplastics for their food, which then biomagnifies up the food chain,” says Waghiyi, who is environmental health and justice director at the Alaska Community Action on Toxics (ACAT) group and a member of the White House Environmental Justice Advisory Council.

“These plastics are ending up in our bodies due to our reliance on the walrus and seals for sustenance.”

A more open sea

In the last 10 years, the number of vessels sailing within and across the Arctic has increased by 37%, according to a report released this year by the Arctic Council, an intergovernmental forum.

“What we are seeing is not just an increase in the numbers of vessels, but also the amount of time they’re spending sailing in the Arctic as they’ve got access to more of the Arctic Sea resources,” says Sian Prior, lead adviser to the Clean Arctic Alliance, a network of NGOs that campaign for protection of the region.

Advocates for Arctic shipping expansion say that the northern passages between Atlantic and Pacific can cut transport distances between Europe and East Asia by 40%, allowing a reduction in fuel consumption and so greenhouse gas emissions. But sailing what has been called the polar Silk Road “is not a straightforward equation with a 40% shorter route meaning 40% less emissions” as Arctic waters can be difficult to navigate, requiring more fuel, says Prior.

Another problem is that soot from ships’ engines – known as ‘black carbon’ – settles to create a dark layer over the white snow and ice, reducing the already-depleted ice’s ability to reflect sunlight, and so increasing warming. A ban on using or carrying the heavy fuel oil burned by much Arctic shipping is set to come into effect in July 2024 to try and reduce this problem.

Black carbon is just one piece of the Arctic pollution puzzle though.

The Arctic Council says most ships venturing into Arctic waters are fishing vessels attracted to newly ice-free fishing spots. International NGO Global Fishing Watch has been tracking them and says that in recent decades there has been an increase in trawlers venturing north during the summer season, close to the boundaries of the Arctic high seas where fishing is restricted.

“With the warming of the ocean, the schools are moving further north, and the fishermen go where the fish are,” says David Kroodsma, leader of the Global Fishing Watch research and innovation team.

This brings more underwater noise pollution, affecting marine species that rely on sound to communicate, navigate and hunt. It increases the risk of oil spills, which are not easy to clean in the far north and have health impacts on local communities. And it brings more plastic debris.

The plastic toll of fishing

In his over 15 years of work with NGOs on plastic pollution, Arctic researcher Eelco Leemans has seen plenty of waste from fishing boats. “One of the top five items we always find on beaches are pieces of fishing net,” he says. Plastic packaging used to store fish on boats is another frequent find, he adds.

Leemans, who works as a marine consultant, told Dialogue Earth that the problem with litter and fishing boats is twofold.

First, there are problems with waste management. On board, boats do not always have good facilities and may just throw things over the side. On land, the remote setting makes it difficult to provide adequate infrastructure. When entering port, fishers can face high fees to dispose of waste, incentivising disposal at sea.

Secondly there are cultural issues with some fishing communities, which often poorly understand the environmental consequences of their actions, says Leemans.

Evidence on the source of Arctic plastic is difficult to come by as it can be hard to identify the origin of waste, but many experts told Dialogue Earth that discards from fishing boats are a problem.

There are regulations in place to prevent dumping, and educational programmes discouraging it. However, the complex legal status of the region and its marine environment often mitigates against their effectiveness.

“We still see tons of fishing gear and waste washing up on our shores. It’s a huge problem that is not properly addressed and enforced,” says Pamela Miller, executive director and senior scientist at Alaska Community Action on Toxics (ACAT) and co-chair of the International Pollutants Elimination Network (IPEN).

IPEN recently reported that the Arctic contains more plastics than any other ocean basin. “The Arctic is effectively an oceanic gyre and a hemispheric sink for both chemicals and plastics,” says Miller.

Large pieces of plastic trapped in this system gradually degrade into millions of micro- and nano-plastic fragments. Ice crystals store these particles and this frozen waste reservoir is then released annually in spring and summer as temperatures rise and wildlife blossoms.

Marine ecologist Rachel Coppock fears this annual release might accelerate in the future as sea ice further diminishes, releasing past plastic pollution.

Her team at the University of Plymouth studied waste distribution in the Arctic region’s water column and “found the greatest concentrations of microplastics nearest the sea-ice edge or landmass”, says Coppock.

She thinks that, once freed, some of this ocean of microplastics travels back to lower latitudes. But much will remain in the Arctic where it can be eaten by marine organisms already under pressure from climate change.

Indigenous voices call for change

Several voices, many from the Indigenous communities, are pushing to use technology to deal with the plastic problem. Given the difficulty of identifying the source of debris found on beaches, discussions are taking place about labelling fishing gear with boat identities so authorities can punish offenders. Onboard monitoring of ships, including by filming and analysing their fishing, has also been shown to change behaviour.

Plastic pollution has emerged as one of the most pervasive problems affecting the marine environment in recent years. Global efforts on a treaty to put an end to it made only slow progress at the last negotiation meeting in Canada, amid increased industry lobbying. Vast amounts of plastic continue to make their way into the ocean every year.

“Our Arctic Indigenous Peoples Delegation travelled two days to be the conscience of the last treaty negotiations. Our farm, the Arctic Ocean, has the most microplastics of all the oceans on the planet, threatening our existence as Arctic Sivuqaq Yupik People and our future generations,” says Waghiyi. “Most people worldwide want a ban on plastic production. Still, the goal of the petrol-chemical industries to weaken the treaty speaks volumes.”

Waghiyi draws parallels with other global problems such as persistent organic pollutants that were created far away but ended up in the Arctic and have been blamed for increasing health problems in her community.

“The increasing rates of cancer and miscarriage experienced by our communities in the last 50 years are linked with a legacy of toxic contamination and persistent organic pollutants from throughout the globe,” she says. “Now there is a higher concern with microplastics and increasing shipping due to the fast melting of the ice.”

As the Arctic continues to warm, solutions to the linked problems of shipping and pollution are increasingly urgent for local people, their environment and the wider world.

Anna Napolitano

With the future of mineral mining on the ocean floor remaining contested and murky, Dialogue Earth digs into the debates. 

By Regina Lam, Jessica Aldred, June 20, 2024

The deep sea is an underwater world scientists are still trying to fathom. It is also a reserve of increasingly sought-after minerals that are critical for modern life, making it a site of major competition for resources. Some governments are gearing up to exploit the seabed, while others want such deep-sea mining halted until its risks to marine life and the environment are better understood. 

As the debate escalates, Dialogue Earth breaks down what is known about the uncharted waters of deep-sea mining.

In this explainer:
What exactly is deep-sea mining?
What are deep-sea miners after?
How might deep-sea mining affect the ocean?
Is mining already taking place?
What is the International Seabed Authority?
Who wants to mine?
Who is against mining?
Where does China stand?
When could commercial mining start?

What exactly is deep-sea mining?

Mining the deep sea involves extracting mineral deposits from seabeds at more than 200 metres below the surface. This area covers around 65% of the planet and harbours a rich diversity of species, many still unknown to science. It encompasses geological features including mountain ranges, plateaus, volcanic peaks, canyons, vast abyssal plains and chasms including the Mariana Trench, which is home to the deepest point of the ocean, at 11,000 metres.

While commercial mining is still a prospect rather than a reality, experimental deep-sea mining has already taken place. The process usually involves deploying seafloor vehicles to dredge or sever seabed formations and scooping or suctioning up mineral-rich deposits to a support vessel, where they can be stored, processed and transported to shore.

What are deep-sea miners after?

Would-be miners are targeting nickel, copper, cobalt, manganese, zinc, silver and gold. These are so-called “critical minerals” – metals essential to modern technology and widely used in the manufacture of smartphones, laptops, solar panels, wind turbines and electric vehicles. Attention is focused on three types of marine mineral deposits: polymetallic nodules found lying on the seafloor; polymetallic sulphides known as “seafloor massive sulphide deposits” that form around active, high-temperature hydrothermal vents; and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts that cover underwater mountains known as seamounts.

Advocates argue that the deep sea could be a reliable, clean and ethical alternative to terrestrial sources. Opponents have environmental concerns and say projections of the need for deep-sea minerals may be wildly optimistic, and that demand can be met by known terrestrial resources and more advanced recycling of metals.

How might deep-sea mining affect the ocean?

Scraping the ocean floor to extract resources could destroy deep-sea homes of octopuses, sponges and other species. Mining hydrothermal vents would require removing entire vent structures, which can support thriving animal communities. Exploiting cobalt-rich crusts deposited on seamounts would potentially remove fauna found there and on the seafloor, which could do similar or even more damage to bottom trawling.

Secondary impacts are also possible. Mining would produce sediment plumes, some of which could be toxic and smother animals downstream. Noise and light pollution caused by mining could disrupt deep-sea communities uniquely adapted to high pressures and the lack of sunlight. Deep-sea animal communities are often slow growing and could take decades – even centuries – to recover from disturbance. 

Is mining already taking place?

Shallow-water mining for sand, tin and diamonds is already happening around the world. Some deep-sea mining exploration has taken place to scope for mining potential and test equipment, both within areas under national control and in international waters. But mining has yet to be conducted commercially.

Countries have the rights to explore and exploit the natural resources of the seabed and subsoil within their territorial sea and exclusive economic zone (EEZ), which normally extends 200 nautical miles beyond a nation’s territorial sea. Nations can claim rights over even more seabed on the continental shelf under certain circumstances. Norway and the Cook Islands are among the nations actively pursuing mining in the waters under their control.

As for seabeds beyond national jurisdiction, the UN stipulates that they belong to no individual nation and are the “common heritage of mankind”; any activities carried out there must therefore be for “the benefit of mankind”. Full-scale mining in these areas cannot begin until the International Seabed Authority signs off a binding code on how it should be conducted.

What is the International Seabed Authority?

The International Seabed Authority (ISA) is an intergovernmental organisation based in Kingston, Jamaica, that has been tasked with developing a code to regulate the exploitation of minerals in international waters. It was established under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea and counts all 168 signatories as member states, including the EU.

To date, it has issued 31 contracts for mining exploration in high seas areas totalling more than 1 million square kilometres. Over half of the exploration contracts are for polymetallic nodules in the area between Hawaii, Kiribati, and Mexico in the Pacific Ocean, known as the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ).

The ISA has since 2014 been working on a code for deep sea mining, and some nations and businesses are putting increasing pressure on the body to finalise these regulations. In 2021, the small Pacific island state of Nauru invoked a never-before-used ISA rule that compels the authority to allow mining to proceed within two years under whatever regulations are in place at the time. The regulations were still far from complete when the two-year rule expired.

Any exploitation license applications submitted under the two-year rule still have to be approved by the ISA, and it is very unlikely this will happen before the regulations are finalised. During the regulator’s meeting in July 2023, delegates agreed to a non-legal binding target of working “with a view” to completing the rules by July 2025.

Who wants to mine?

The list of would-be deep-sea miners includes private businesses, state-owned companies and governments, including those of China, India, Japan, Russia and South Korea. Some nations have teamed up: the Interoceanmetal Joint Organization is a consortium formed of Bulgaria, Cuba, the Czech Republic, Poland, Russia and Slovakia. Small island states which control significant amounts of seabed are also keen to engage in mining, including the Cook Islands, Kiribati, Nauru, Singapore and Tonga.

Some nations are further ahead than others. The Cook Islands has already offered licences to three companies to study the feasibility of mining seabed minerals in its territorial waters. Norway’s parliament decided to open its extended continental shelf for deep-sea mining exploration earlier this year (this area goes beyond its territorial waters but falls under Norwegian control due to UN rules). The government says any extraction plans require approval from the energy ministry and the parliament, and only “sustainable and responsible” projects will be permitted.

Who is against mining?

An increasing number of nations are cautioning against starting commercial deep-sea mining without a better understanding of its impacts. To date, 25 countries have called for pauses or a full ban, including Brazil, Canada, Denmark, France, Fiji, Germany, Mexico and the UK.

Scientists concerned about potentially irreparable damage to ecosystems say not enough is known about deep-sea species and ecosystems to establish an adequate baseline against which to protect them or monitor the impact of mining. Conflicts between mining and other ocean activities could also occur as proposed mining areas overlap with shipping routes, fishing grounds, and areas bio-prospected for genetic resources. The increase in marine traffic and mining waste discharge could disrupt the primary productivity of the food web (the rate at which energy is converted to organic substances by organisms), and potentially affect fish populations.

Major companies, including Google, Samsung, Patagonia, BMW, Volvo and Volkswagen Group, have backed a call from the WWF for a temporary ban. These companies have pledged to ensure minerals extracted from the deep sea are not used in their products.

Where does China stand?

China holds five out of the 31 ISA exploration contracts, the most of any country. Several of its national research institutions, universities and state-owned companies have built up their technical capability for deep-sea exploitation, in part as a hedge against high reliance on imported strategic minerals. Recently, Qingdao and Shanghai’s municipal governments have also begun exploring opportunities to boost related research.

In 2016, the country adopted a Deep Sea Law to set regulations for deep-sea exploration and exploitation activities, including licensing, environmental impact assessments and monitoring requirements. China’s representatives at the ISA have been actively engaged in the mining regulation negotiations, pushing back on a discussion of a moratorium on mining during the ISA talks in July 2023. Beijing said the ISA was established to regulate seabed activities by setting out rules for mineral exploitation and protecting the deep sea environment.

Some marine engineering researchers suggest more effort and investment is needed from the nation for it to catch up with progress in technological and equipment development achieved by Europe, Japan and South Korea.

When could commercial mining start?

For mining rights in international waters to be granted, contractors will have to conduct environmental impact assessments in line with ISA rules. They also need to demonstrate financial and technological capacity to actually undertake proposed mining activities. Nauru’s invocation of the ISA law means that contractors can now apply for mining licenses. But applications are unlikely to be approved by the authority before it finalises the rules, regulations and procedures. Member nations have agreed to work towards adopting the rules by July 2025, but many representatives have expressed doubt that the body will be able to meet a non-binding timeline.

To date, no party has submitted a mining licence to the ISA. But Nauru could be the first to start commercial exploitation. It is a sponsoring state for Nauru Ocean Resources Inc (NORI), a wholly owned subsidiary of The Metals Company. The company, based in Canada, says NORI intends to apply for an exploitation contract following the next ISA meeting in July 2024, and expects to be in production in late 2025.